The first sūra in the Qur’ān, al-Fātiha (Q 1), is known by a number of different names. Islāmic scholars list more than twenty, including these most familiar and prominent names:

Fātihat al-Kitāb (“The Opener of the Book”).

Al-Sab‘ al-Mathānī.

Um al-Qur’ān (“The Mother of the Qur’ān”).

Um al-Kitāb (“The Mother of the Book”) Scholars disagree about the date of its revelation, an issue which will be examined further as we analyze this sūra.

The Kufan and Meccan schools counted the Basmala (“In the name of the merciful and compassionate God”) as the first verse of Q 1. However, the Medinan school counted this opening phrase, the Basmala, as part of the first verse. On the other hand, al-Hassan al-Basrī (a well-known Muslim theologian and scholar) divided Q 1 into eight verses.

Al-Fātiha is the only sūra which Muslims end its recitation with the word Āmīn (Amen).

Al-Baqara is the longest sūra in the Qu’rān. Named al-Baqara, (“The Cow”), it contains an account of Moses instructing the Israelites to offer a cow as a sacrifice to Allah (Q 2.67-71). This sūra addresses a wide variety of practical topics, including significant portions of Islāmic law. It retells stories of famous biblical characters such as Adam, Abraham, and Moses.

The sūra is classified as Medinan because it was revealed over the course of the first two years of the Hijra, Muhammad’s migration period (AH 1-2/AD 622-623). However, certain verses in this sūra belong to earlier and later periods. For example, Q 2.21-39 and the phrase “O ye folk” (verses 21 and 168) are believed to have been revealed while Muhammad was in Mecca. After Muhammad migrated to Medina, he began using a different phrase: “O ye who believe!” (Q 2.104).

On the other hand, there are other verses believed to have been revealed after the second year of Muhammad’s migration to Medina, such as these examples:

Verse 114 was revealed c. AH 6/AD 627-628 (refers to the Treaty of Hudaybīya).

Verses 190-194 discuss the doctrine of jihād after the Treaty of Hudaybīya.

Verses 111-113 were revealed c. AH 9/AD 630-631 (deals with the year of delegations).

Moreover, verses 278-281 are believed to have been revealed during the last year of Muhammad’s life because they are connected to the “Farewell Pilgrimage,” performed by Muhammad before his death. At the end of the sūra there is a condemnation of riba (usury). The verses pertaining to usury are believed to be among the last verses revealed in the entire Qur’ān.

The composing of sūra al-Baqara, including the modifications and corrections, took more than eight years, from AH 1-8/AD 622-629.

Sūra al-Baqara addresses the following topics:

Legislation—the major pilgrimage (Hajj), minor pilgrimage (‘Umra), fasting, and jihād. The laws found in Q 2 were revealed early in Muhammad’s period in Medina. However, while gathering the written Qur’ān, many changes were inserted into Q 2 from different time periods. As a result, al-Baqara became the largest legislative sūra in the Qur’ān.

Controversies—criticism of, debates with, and incitements against the Jews (Q 2.83-105, 174-177) as well as other volatile issues occupy a large part of this sūra.

Politics—criticism of Muhammad’s opponents in Medina (Q 2.206), who are labeled “the hypocrites.”

In this sūra, Muhammad introduces rituals, e.g., qibla, the pilgrimages, that some of his contemporaries questioned because they believed these rituals contained paganistic elements.

This sūra also contains stories originally found in biblical and rabbinical literature.

The name of this sūra, Al-i ‘Imrān, means “the house (or family) of ‘Imrān.” In Islām, ‘Imrān is considered the father of Mary and this family (house) includes ‘Imrān, Anne, Mary, and Jesus. This sūra consists of two distinct sections:

Teachings and prohibitions from AH 2/AD 624 to AH 3/AD 625, from the victory at Badr to the defeat at Uh. ud (Q 3.1-139)

Verbal castigations against those who doubted or opposed the power of the Muslims (Q 3.140-200)

This second section also addresses the aftermath following the defeat at Uh. ud and tackles its negative consequences for Muslims. Later verses mention the second Battle of Badr and promise “great reward” to those “who answered the call of Allah” and went forth to fight (Q 3.172-200). Also included in this section are certain hostile verses against the Jews (Q 3.121-170).

From the context of this sūra, it is clear that its composition took about three years, from the second to the fourth Hijra years (AD 624-626). Yet, some parts of the sūra obviously belong to times before this period. Other parts, however, indicate inclusion later than AD 626:

The language of verses 26 and 27 is absolutely Meccan, with key phrases and wording an apparent residual of the late Meccan period.

The sūra refers unfavorably to the visit of the Christian delegation from Najran in the year of delegations, AH 9/AD 631. However, it is known that during the time of the initial writing of this sūra, Christians were viewed somewhat favorably, so scholars feel that “this insertion is incompatible with both the timeline and the topic of the sūra….”

The two verses, Q 3.96-97, refer to pilgrimage rituals. Hence, their dating belongs to the later years of Muhammad (c. AH 10/AD 631).

Verses 130-136 discuss the interest on loans (riba); however, the presence of this topic here seems incompatible within its context because verses 121-170 are a unit with an independent topic. Instead, this portion (Q 3.130-136) appears to be a repetition of the condemnation of riba quoted in sūra al-Baqara (Q 2).

This sūra’s name, al-Nisā’, means “The Women.” The name comes from its many rulings about women, particularly in the initial verses (up to Q 4.34). Muslim scholars disagree about the date of this sūra. The majority believes that it was revealed after Q 3 and so dated it after the third year of the Hijra (AH 3/AD 622). Others suggest it was revealed in the fourth or the beginning of the fifth year of the Hijra, AH 4-5.1 The scholar Wherry leans towards adopting this date because he considers that its revelation occurred the beginning of AH 4 to the middle or end of AH 5.2 Still others date it between the end of the third and fifth year of the Hijra, AH 3-5, between the Battle of Uhud and the Battle of the Trench.

Some parts of this sūra clearly do not belong to the aforementioned time period, AH 3-5. For instance, we find the phrase, “O ye folk!” (Q 4.1, 133), which is considered a Meccan expression. It is probable, however, that this was indeed an early Medinan expression used by Muhammad before he coined his new terms. The use here of “O ye folk!” leads some Muslims to say that this is a Meccan sūra (revealed in Mecca). However, most Muslim scholars reject this position, as the sūra deals with events that occurred in Medina. Therefore, verses 1 and 133 are thought to have been added to the sūra at a later date.

We also find that some verses in this sūra belong to a period beyond the fifth year of the Hijra, AH 5. For example, Q 4.43—the verse mandating al-tayamum (performing the ritual washing with sand when no water is available)—came during the Raid of al-Muraysī‘, which occurred in AH 5 or 6. Verse 176, also known as the kalāla verse (governing the rules of inheritance), comes at the end of this sūra and is considered by some as the last verse of the Qur’ān to be revealed. This chronology indicates that the sūra was not revealed at one time as a complete sūra but was instead patched together with verses from different time periods.

Overall, this sūra is concerned with three main issues:

Rules concerning women.

Aftereffects of the defeat at the Battle of Uhud.

Laws regarding inheritance and the care of orphans.

The sūra also provides various admonitions to Muslims.

In dealing with the political situation after the Battle of Uhud, verses 44-55 and 155-158 introduce anti-Jewish rhetoric. Then verses 60-68, 81-83, 138, and 141-143 severely criticize Muhammad’s opponents (al-munāfiqūn, or “the hypocrites”). We also find that verses 74-78 and 84 encourage fighting. Moreover, verses 171-172 insult Christians. However, since the Qur’ān had not yet begun its campaign of accusations against Christians, these verses must have been added to the sūra at a later time.

The name of this sūra, al-Mā’ida, literally means “a table spread with food.” It is named after the story of “the table,” when the disciples of Jesus asked him to bring “a table of food from heaven” down to them. (See also comments on Q 5.112-115) This sūra will address the following subjects:

Ritualistic matters pertaining to purification, food, and pilgrimages (Q 5.1-7, 38, 87, 91, 94-100 and others).

Speeches against the Jews (Q 5.12-13, 18-26) and Muhammad’s opponents (Q 5.41).

Debates about the nature of Christ and the Holy Trinity (Q 5.14, 17, 72, 110-118).

This sūra represents two opposing attitudes toward Christianity. The first encompasses the hostile mindset formed at the end of the Medinan period. The second, a friendlier mindset, describes Christians as “nearest in love to those who believe” (Q 5.82) and belongs to the Meccan period.

There is some disagreement among Muslims over whether Q 5 or Q 9 is chronologically the last sūra written. Despite the apparent chronological proximity between the two sūras, Q 9 displays anti-Christian speech that is in sharp contrast to the cordial expression in Q 5.82. Therefore, it is possible that the cordial verse belongs to an earlier period and was added to the body of Q 5.

It is interesting to note that negative pronouncements about the Jews and Muhammad’s opponents (“the hypocrites”) are already expressed in Q 3. Al-Haddād holds that these verses pertaining to the Jews and the opponents were inserted later into Q 5 because the threat of the Jews and the opponents was vanquished after the conquest of Mecca, making such inflammatory verses unnecessary. Therefore, al-Haddād believes these verses have to be from Q 3.

The opinion of al-Haddād could be accepted if the sūras were arranged chronologically, or if the verses of each sūra were chronologically or thematically consistent. However, as we have seen in the previous sūras, the long sūras reflect extended periods of time, possibly as many as eight years. (See Q 2.)

We find in this sūra an example of the nonsequential arrangement of Qur’ānic sūras and verses. Islāmic scholars have informed us that the first revealed verses of this sūra are verses 15 and 16. Therefore, according to chronological order, those verses should have been listed at the beginning of the sūra, in place of verses 1 and 2. Furthermore, in this sūra (which covers a time period of more than two years) is a verse that we know to be one of the last verses. With this verse from Muh. ammad’s “Farewell Pilgrimage” speech, “Today is perfected for you your religion” (Q 5.3), he announced the completion of his message. We do not exclude the possibility that Muhammad could have said it on his deathbed and that he didn’t have it in mind as a Qur’ānic verse. It could be that it was simply a farewell expression.

The name of this sūra, al-An‘ām, which means “the cattle,” refers to the repetition of the word an‘ām six times within the sūra. It is mentioned three times in verse Q 6.138 and once in each of the following verses: Q 6.136, Q 6.139, and Q 6.142.

According to Islāmic sources, this sūra was revealed in its entirety in Mecca. The sūra marks the eve of migration (Hijra) where, as evidenced by the verse “and shun the idolaters” (Q 6.106), MuhAmmad seemed totally frustrated by the resistance to his message by his own tribe, the Quraysh.

However, despite the assertion that this sūra was fully revealed in Mecca, it clearly also contains Medinan elements. According to some Islāmic narratives, the verses Q 6.91-93 and 6.151-152 are from the Medinan period. Other Muslim scholars consider verse Q 6.111 to be Medinan also.

The sūra contains a ruling that rejects the Quraysh’s pagan sacrifices (Q 6.139, 143-144). However, we also find in its rules about permitted (halāl) and forbidden (harām) foods in Q 6.145-146, which belong to the later Medinan time period. It is possible that Muhammad developed the section that deals with sacrifices in the Meccan period and reworded the verses in Medina, under the influence of Jewish thought.

The name of this sūra, al-A‘rāf, is an expression that is only mentioned in this sūra (Q 7.46, 48). Al-A‘rāf, meaning “the Battlements,” is the name of the barrier that separates paradise from hell.

The general objective of this sūra is to establish Muhammad’s claims to prophetic revelation. To this end, a number of prophets’ stories were included. The prophets’ experiences and the consequences that befell those who refused to believe in them were meant to compel the hearers from among the Quraysh people to believe in Muhammad.

It is interesting to note that the prophets’ stories, including their characteristics, messages, and the opposition they faced from their people, are portrayed as exact reflections of Muh. ammad and his own similar challenges. Though this sūra is distinctly Meccan, it is interspersed with Medinan verses. The following list provides evidence of these included Medinan verses:

Q 7.157-158 is a Medinan segment.

This segment uses the description, “the ummī Prophet.” The word ummī could mean “illiterate” or “gentile.” This description was mentioned in Medina to distinguish Muhammad from the prophets of the Jews and Christians.

A second expression in this segment, “the law and the Gospel,” is mentioned only in those portions of the Qur’ān that were given, or “came down” in Medina.

A third expression, “those who believe in him and aid him and help him” refers to the Helpers (Ansār) in Medina.

This segment, verses 157-158, constitutes an interruption in the context of the rest of the verses, which resumes at verse Q 7.159.

Q 7.163-172 is another Medinan segment, according to the Islāmic accounts.

Within the sūra is a remark in Q 7.94 about the economic inflation that dominated Mecca at that time.

The general style of the sūra signifies that its revelation was received on the eve of the migration (Hijra).

This sūra is also concerned with the history of humanity and the stories of the prophets: • Beginning of creation and the fall of Adam into temptation (Q 7.1-58).

History of certain prophets, such as Noah, Sālih, Shu‘ayb (Q 7.59-102) and Moses (Q 7.103-174).

Attempt to understand the end of history and the end of the world, or “the last hour” (Q 7.187-206).

This sūra was named al-Anfāl, meaning “spoils of war,” because it begins by talking about them and contains explanations as to how spoils of war should be distributed. Other narrators call it sūra Badr because its revelation is said to have been given after that battle. In fact, the largest portion of this sūra was given immediately after the Battle of Badr. However, a portion of the text, verses 64-65, was revealed before the battle, which implies that the verses of the sūra were not organized in chronological order.

It appears that this particular text (verses 64-65) was written in the concluding portion of this sūra. It is further probable that verse 64 is Meccan, for we are told that it refers to the conversion of ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattāb to Islām.

The sūra possesses a high tone of confidence and even pride as a result of the joyous victory at Badr. As the voices of the opposition were hushed, Muhammad made his victory a divine attestation to the truthfulness of his claims to being a prophet. This sūra is in great contrast to the third sūra (Q 3) that was revealed after the defeat in the Battle of Uhud. (See the introduction to Q 3) Such a dichotomous comparison is another possible indication that this revelation may not have come down from the Preserved Tablet but rather out of Muhammad’s personal circumstances and creative mind.

Because a decree prohibiting the practice of pagan rituals in the Arabian Peninsula was revealed in this sūra, it represents, in tangible form, Muhammad’s victory over the Meccan and Arabian tribes neighboring Mecca. This decree took place during the year AH 9 (AD 630), when Muhammad sent ‘Alī on pilgrimage to recite the first verses of this sūra. The sūra also includes the consummate position of Islām towards Jews and Christians.

Some scholars have said that Q 5 (al-Mā’ida) is the last given sūra of the Qur’ān. However, most Islāmic accounts consider al-Tawba to be the last given sūra. The majority of Qur’ānic scholars also agree that this sūra was revealed all at once. Therefore, this analysis of the sūra leads to the conclusion that it was composed over several periods. That is to say, it is not the last sūra in the absolute sense, and it could not have been revealed all at once.

Despite the fact that the date of the first portion clearly refers to the year AH 9, a detailed analysis of the sūra exposes the following chronological deviations:

Q 9.13-16 encourage the invasion of Mecca because the Quraysh did not comply with the terms of the Treaty of Hudaybīya, an event that occurs at least one year before AH 9.

Q 9.25 refers to the Battle of Hunayn, which took place immediately after the conquest of Mecca (AH 8/AD 629).

Q 9.40 refers to praise of Abū Bakr for joining Muhammad in the migration (and includes the phrase, “they two were in the cave,” where Abū Bakr calmed the worries of Muhammad after they were chased there during their migration to Medina by a band of Quraysh).

Q 9.113, a Meccan verse, discusses Muhammad’s desire to seek forgiveness for his uncle, Abū Talib, who died before the migration.

Q 9.128-129 also exhibit Meccan language, according to some scholars, and thus belongs to the period before the Hegira.

The following subjects and rulings are addressed in this sūra:

Bans on pagan rituals describing non-Muslims as defiled (unclean): “...it is only the idolaters who are unclean” (Q 9.28).

Imperative to launch crusades against Jews and Christians (Q 9.29-35).

Command to submit to the lunar calendar only and the outlawing of al-Nasī’, an extra month added every third year to the lunar calendar to make it align with the solar calendar (Q 9.36-37).

Incitement to jihād in most of the verses (Q 9.111 and others)

This sura was named Yūnus (“Jonah”) because it is the only sura that reports how the people of Yūnus became believers and were forgiven by Allah after being warned of Allah’s impending judgment (Q 10.98). Islamic scholar Ibn ‘Āshūr suggests that the name Yūnus was given to this sura to distinguish it from the other four suras with the same opening letters in the first verse: A. L. R. (Alif. Lam. Ra.). (See the article “Muqatta‘āt (The Stand-Alone Letters),” Qur’ān Dilemma 1: 105.) To avoid repetition (the “First Alif. Lam. Ra.,” the “Second Alif. Lam. Ra.,” etc.), each sura, or chapter, was instead attributed to a particular prophet or a prophet’s people.

The majority of Islamic scholars agree that Q 10 is Meccan (Meccan Qur’ānic text). However, some scholars state that certain verses within the sura are Medinan (Medinan Qur’ānic text):

Q 10.40, based on one scholar’s opinion.

Q 10.41 and the following verses are said to be Medinan, but the first forty are Meccan according to one of the opinions.

Q 10.94-95 only, according to other narratives.

Q 10.94-97, according to Ibn ‘Abbās.

Q 10 as a whole is Medinan, according to some scholars.

Those who advocate that there are Medinan portions in this sura use the sura’s mention of the Jews as a reason for their opinion. Orientalist Theodor Nöldeke does not support this opinion and holds that the entire sura is Meccan. He believes that the mention of the Jews in the verses is not sufficient evidence to consider these portions Medinan. Orientalist E. M. Wherry confirms this assessment, stating that historical narratives report that Muḥammad conversed with Jews and had discussions with them in Mecca.

The sura addresses several theological issues and contains arguments against Muḥammad’s critics (Q 10.15,18, and 20). It also emphasizes the uniqueness of the Qur’ān (Q 10.38).

Besides the story about the people of Yūnus, the sura mentions the story of Noah (Q 10.71-74) and Moses (Q 10.75-92).

The sura was named Hūd after an early prophet and contains the longest narration about him, mentioning his name five times (verses 50, 53, 58, 60, and 89).

The sura contains the following messages and accounts:

Defense of the authenticity of the Qur’ān and Muḥammad’s claim to prophethood despite the absence of miracles as “verifying” evidence Warnings to the Meccans that they will incur the wrath of Allah for their rejection of Muḥammad, reminding them of other peoples’ punishment when they rejected their prophets Stories of the prophets who are portrayed similarly to Muḥammad in his circumstances, facing skepticism and rejection.

Notice that the topics covered in this sura are similar to the topics addressed in Q 7. (See Q 7) Also, Q 11 chronologically follows Q 10 in the Qur’ān as they were historically given, one after the other, in order. Thus, Q 11 continues addressing some of the topics raised in Q 10. What is clear in these two suras is that the stage of the relationship between Muḥammad and the Quraysh was at its most tense at that time.

Although there is no disagreement among Islamic scholars concerning the fact that this sura is Meccan, nonetheless some believe that these verses within Q 11 belong to the Medinan era because of their content: Q 11.12 and 17 (mention the Jews) and Q 11.114 (specifies the prayer times). Orientalist Nöldeke suggests the probability that verse 84 completes verse 68. He also believes that verses 100-109 are closing statements that review the sura’s content.

This sura is dedicated to the story of Joseph. It is the only sura in the Qur’ān that displays a unity of subject. Even though no other sura includes the story of Joseph, the name Joseph is mentioned in Q 6.84 and Q 40.34.

This sura describes the story of Joseph in verse 3 as “the best of stories,” a description that Islamic commentators disagree as to whether it applies only to the story of Joseph in particular or all the stories of the Qur’ān in general.

The content of Joseph’s story in the Qur’ān indicates a lack of complete familiarity with the Old Testament heritage regarding Joseph, a point that will be addressed later in its context.

The story of Joseph has a unique problem. A group of Muslims refused to acknowledge it as a Qur’ānic text, and groups of the Khawārij, such as al-‘Ajārida and al-Maymūnīya, state that Q 12 is not part of the Qur’ān.1 While it is true that the Khawārij’s ideology was rejected by Sunnis and Shiites, the solidity of their faith cannot be questioned. The Khawārij were known for their fanaticism for Islam, which makes their rejection of Q 12 noteworthy.

The sura belongs to the last Meccan period, meaning close to the night of migration to Medina. However, some commentators state that verses 1-3 are Medinan. This opinion does not rely on a clear foundation and thereby has been rejected by Islamic commentators, such as Jalāl al-Dīn al-Suyūţī, and by Orientalists, such as Nöldeke, who support this rejection.

This sura is called “The Thunder” (al-Ra‘d) because this word is mentioned in verse 13. The word al-ra‘d appears only twice in the Arabic Qur’ān, in Q 13.13 and Q 2.19.

Using the content and the occasions of the verses to determine the sura’s date of revelation, Muslim scholars are divided among three opinions: Meccan, Medinan, and Meccan with some Medinan verses. The structure of the sura and its topics indicates that the largest part of the sura is Meccan because the sura contains arguments for the existence of the Creator (verses 2-3, 8-17). The reason behind these arguments is to confirm the prophetic claim of Muģammad and the authenticity of the Qur’ān (verses 30-32, 36-38, 43). The sura further contains justification for Muģammad’s refraining from giving miracles. (See the comments on verses 7-9 and 27.)

The following verses, however, indicate a Medinan context:

Q13.12-13: According to Islamic commentaries, these two verses point to two individuals who plotted to kill Muģammad around the ninth or tenth year AH (c. AD 630 or 631); one was hit by the arrow of death. Orientalist Theodor Nöldeke has some reservation concerning the occasion or circumstance behind the verses, stating that the text might have been a general text interpreted in different ways according to the interpreters’ own preference.

Q 13.30: According to Islamic sources, it refers to the Treaty of Ģudaybīya (AH 6/AD 628).

Q 13.41: The language of this verse is Medinan, a view that Orientalist E. M. Wherry finds probable as well.

Even though this sura contains the narrative of Abraham, it was not named the sura of Abraham (Ibrāhīm) because of that characteristic. Abraham is mentioned at length in Q 2 and Q 3 and, to a lesser degree, in Q 6 as well as other suras. In fact, his name is mentioned more than sixty times in the Qur’ān as a whole.

Islamic sources do not specify the reason for this sura’s title of Ibrāhīm. A possible reason could be that Abraham is mentioned in a larger portion of this sura’s verses than any other mentioned figures.

Islamic scholars do not disagree that this sura is Meccan, though some consider verses 28 and 29 to be Medinan and connected to the Battle of Badr. However, this view is rejected by both Ibn ‘Āshūr and Orientalist Nöldeke.

The sura begins with a harsh criticism of the “misbelievers” (i.e., the Quraysh) and a defense of Muhammad as Allah’s sent messenger, accompanied by warnings to the Quraysh not to reject Muhammad’s call (verses 1-4). The sura further defends Muhammad by responding to those who rejected Muhammad’s prophethood—on the basis of his humanness—that Allah chooses humans to deliver the prophetic message (verses 4 and 11).

The sura belongs to the late Meccan era, the height of contention between Muhammad and the Quraysh. While the sura mentions Moses (verses 5-10), the people of Noah and ‘Ād and Thamūd (verse 9), and, in greater length, Abraham (verses 35-41), the main purpose of mentioning these biblical figures is to draw similarities between the rejection of the Quraysh of Muhammad and the rejection of the people of other prophets. Such similarities, if convincing, would thus demonstrate that prophets are typically ignored, rebuffed, or renounced and that Muhammad is walking in the steps of preceding prophets.

In later verses, this sura reminds people of their end, promising al-Janna (Islamic paradise) to the believers (verse 23) and hell for the unbelievers (verses 28-30).

The sura closes by describing the Qur’ān as a message: “This is a message to be delivered to men…” (verse 52). However, this attitude will change after the Hijra to Medina, when the call to become Muslims would be accompanied by the persuasion of military force.

This sura is called al-hijr (El ‘Hagr) although this word is only mentioned in verse 80. Al-hijr, according to Islamic commentators, is the name of the town inhabited by the people of Thamūd.

The sura admonishes the idolatrous Quraysh, Muhammad’s tribesmen, and presents evidence concerning the power of Allah from nature (verses 16, 19, and 20). The sura also elevates stories about these people:

Abraham (verses 51-56)

Lot (verses 57-76)

“the fellows of the Grove,” or, according to Islamic commentaries, the people of Shu‘ayb (Palmer trans. “Sho’hâib” ) (verse 78)

“the fellows of El ‘Hagr,” or, according to Islamic commentaries, the people of Thamūd (verses 80-84)

These stories of punitive retribution were given to warn the Quraysh that punishment would come upon them similarly as it came on those who disbelieved previous prophets. Muhammad concentrated on these topics of retribution and warnings during the last stage of his time in Mecca. An exception is verse 94, where Muhammad appears to deliver the message only and avoids arguments with the idolaters, a behavior characteristic of the early years of Muhammad’s call to Islam in Mecca.

Even though most Muslim scholars agree that this sura is Meccan, they do not exempt some of its verses from this classification. It is mentioned in some Islamic sources that verses 24, 87, and 89 are Medinan. Orientalist Nöldeke, however, doubts that verses 24 and 87 are Medinan.

The sura is called al-Nahl (“The Bee”) because the word bee appears only in this chapter of the Qur’ān in verse 68. Others call this sura al-Ni‘am (“Blessings”) because it mentions the blessings that Allah bestows on people.

Q 16 is primarily Meccan, but it contains Medinan parts. For instance, verses 126-128 allude to Muhammad’s decision to execute and mutilate the bodies of seventy Quraysh in revenge for their mutilation of hamza’s corpse after they killed him at the Battle of ’Uhud (AH 3/AD 625). (hamza Ibn ‘Abd al-Muţţalib was the paternal uncle and a Companion of Muhammad.)

Orientalist Nöldeke opines that the following are Medinan verses because they mention the Emigrants (verse 110); the description of Islam as the “faith of Abraham,” a Medinan term (verse 123); and a reference to the Jews (verse 124).

Orientalist Gustav Weil considers verses 101-103 to be Medinan as they contain abrogation, but Nöldeke disagrees.

Some Islamic scholars consider the second part of the sura to be Medinan, starting with verse 41 until the end of the sura.

The sura also presents evidence for the existence of the Creator based on nature and calls people to leave idolatry and embrace monotheism. All this evidence is intended to prove the veracity of Muhammad’s message and the authenticity of the Qur’ān. What can be readily seen in the sura is Muhammad’s despair over the Quraysh’s disbelief regarding this evidence, which makes it likely that the sura belongs to the late Meccan period.

This sura is named al-Isrā’, or the Night Journey because it begins with a description of this special event. It is believed that Muhammad undertook one night in AD 620 a journey on a winged mulelike steed from Mecca to the “Farthest Mosque” as well as the heavens.

During the time of Muhammad, however, this chapter was known as the sura of the Banī Isrā’il, Children of Israel or the Israelites.

The sura is Meccan but is intertwined with Medinan verses in several places. Most Muslim scholars have decided that the following are Medinan verses: 26, 32-33, 57, 60, 73-74, 78, 80, and 107. It is also said that only verses 73-80 are Medinan.

The first verse concerning this Night Journey does not cogently connect with the verses immediately following it. Orientalist Nöldeke posits that there may be a missing section following the first verse or that the first verse was pulled from another context and placed in its current location.

It is clear from the Muslim and Orientalists’ scholarly opinions that the sura was given in sections. According to Nöldeke, “the internal coherence of the various sections is so weak, and the external correspondence so inadequate, that scepticism [sic] about the unity of the sura is not unwarranted”.

The sura belongs to a year and a half period before the Hijra. This pre-Hijra period was a time when Muhammad’s attitude and behavior was less severe toward the Quraysh than his last year in Mecca.

Sura al-Kahf (“The Cave”) is generally considered a Meccan sura, although Muslim scholars disagree about the chronology of some of its verses. Some believe verses 1-8, 28, and 83 to be Medinan verses. Other scholars would add verses 107-110 to the list as well.

What distinguishes this sura is its collection of unique stories: The Fellows of the Cave, verses 9-26; Moses and the Good Servant (a figure known as al-Khidr among the major commentaries), verses 60-82; and the great ruler Dhū al-Qarnayn (Palmer trans. Dhu ’l Qarnâin), whose name means “the one with the two horns,” verses 83-102. These stories have no references in biblical or general history. They were mythical stories told in the ancient Near East and used by Muhammad in various political and social contexts as evidence of his knowledge of history. These stories will be addressed in greater detail where they appear in this sura.

In addition to these stories, the sura contains warnings to the Quraysh regarding their obstinacy to accept Muhammad as a prophet. (See Q 18.26-29.)

The dating of this sura is attributed to the sixth year of Muhammad’s Da‘wa (call to Islam) in Mecca. However, it is probable that the stories of al-Khidr and Dhū al-Qarnayn (“he of the two horns”) belong to a different time period and were put in this sura to gather these stories in one place.

Mary is the focal character of this nineteenth sura, which is named after her. It is told that the name of the sura, Maryam (Mary), was given by Muhammad himself. Ibn ‘Abbās called this sura KHY‘Š (K.H.Y.‘H.Z.). This sura is distinguished by its description of Allah as al-Rahman (“the Merciful), a word that appears sixteen times in the sura.

The sura contains the life of Mary and her baby Jesus’ miraculous conception (verses 15-40) as well as other biblical characters, such as Zechariah, Yahyā or John the Baptist (verses 1-14), and Abraham (verses 41-50). The sura also alludes to Moses (verses 51-53), Ishmael (verse 54), and Idrīs (verse 56).

This sura is the earliest sura to mention characters of the New Testament, such as Mary, Zechariah, Yahyā and ‘Īsā (Jesus). Despite the inclusion of characters from both the Old and New Testaments, the sura’s narratives diverge from or conflict with the biblical text, demonstrating that Muhammad was not intimately familiar with the Jewish and Christian books.

This sura also discusses and describes al-Janna. The mention of al-Janna (Islamic paradise) came as a response to the rejection of the Day of Judgment by the disbelieving Quraysh.

Islamic scholars are in agreement that the sura is Meccan. However, there are those who state that verse 71 is Medinan. Ibn ‘Āshūr places this sura, Q 19, after Q 35 and before Q 20. He estimates that its place in the Qur’ān is the forty-fourth chapter.

According to Islamic commentator al-Suyūţī, the sura was carried to Christian Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and read to al-Najāshī, emperor of Abyssinia, by Muslim leader Ja‘far Ibn Abī Ţālib to prove unity of doctrine. This sura was likely an attempt by Muhammad to gain influence with the emperor, so that he would provide protection and financial support for the Muslim refugees.

Verses 34-40 noticeably differ from the rest of the sura because they accuse Christians of blasphemy for their belief that God took for himself a child. (See the critical analysis of Q 19.35). These verses may have been added by Muhammad at the beginning of the third Meccan period or the end of the second Meccan period (c. AD 618-619). These verses must have been added to the original text that was read in the presence of al-Najāshī. It is unreasonable to think that Muhammad would order the reading before this king of a text containing a section that makes Christians misbelievers without even a comment on the text by al-Najāshī or a reply to the accusation. This view is further supported by the fact that Muhammad needed and used this sura to gain the protection of al-Najāshī.

The accusation is repeated in verse 30 and verses 88-92, which means that these verses were also not part of the text read in the presence of al-Najāshī.

The sura is called Ţa Ha (T. H.) because it starts with these letters. Within the pages of some exegetical books two other names are mentioned for this sura: al-Kalīm or “the Interlocutor,” i.e., Mūsā (Moses). (In Islamic tradition, the honorific title Kalīm Allāh is ascribed to Moses because he was a “convers[e]r with Allah”). The story of Moses occupies the larger part of the sura and is covered in verses 9 through 98.

The name for God in the sura is al-Rahmān (“the Merciful”), the name that was spread in the southern areas of the Arabian Peninsula instead of the name Allah that was spread in Hijaz.

Muslim scholars agree that this sura is Meccan. However, some of them exempt verses 130 and 131 from that classification. Orientalist Nöldeke does not agree with the exemption as he does not find it justifiable.

There is disagreement regarding the dating of the sura. Ibn ‘Āshūr states that the sura goes back to the fifth year of the Muhammadan Da‘wa (AD 617). Orientalist William Muir puts this sura in the last Meccan period (AD 622) because of its longer length. Using textual analysis, Wherry proposes that the sura belongs in the beginning of the third Meccan period (c. 6 or 7 BH/AD 615-616).

In addition to the sura’s emphasis on the story of Moses (verses 9-98), it talks about Allah (verses 5-8) and mentions the “resurrection day” (Day of Judgment) (verses 99-112), the story of Adam (verses 115-123), and an encouraging address to Muhammad (verses 130-135).

This sura is called “The Prophets” because it contains the names and stories of sixteen prophets (according to Islamic classification), the second largest number of prophets mentioned in one sura. Only Q 7, which mentions eighteen prophets, surpasses this number. Abraham’s story occupies the most prominent place in this sura as it is mentioned from verses 51 through 72.

The sura contains the following topics:

Warning regarding the consequences of rejecting the Qur’ān and Muhammad’s message and confirmation of Muhammad’s position in the line of prophets.

Discourse concerning Allah and his oneness, where the oneness is contrasted with the idolatrous doctrine of the Quraysh Narratives of prophets.

The sura was known in Muhammad’s time, according to Islamic sources, as al-Hajj (“The Pilgrimage”), so named because it contains the command of Allah to Abraham to proclaim an invitation (Da‘wa) to pilgrimage (verse 26).

Islamic scholars disagree on whether the sura is Meccan, Medinan, or mixed (parts of it Meccan and other parts Medinan), and whether most of its verses are Meccan or Medinan. However, those who believe that the sura is mixed still disagree as to which verses are Meccan or Medinan. Because of these contradictions, some Islamic scholars hold that it cannot be decisively known which verses are Meccan and Medinan.

The same disagreement can also be seen among the Orientalists. Orientalist Nöldeke provides a list of verses that he considers Meccan (verses 1-24, 42-57, 61-66, and 68-76) and Medinan (verses 17 and 25-37)—the latter for these reasons:

Q 22.17 because it contains the expression alladhīna (“and those who are Jews”  ), which does not occur “in the older parts” of the Qur’ān.

Q 22.25-37 because they mention the hajj. Nöldeke regards these verses to have been given in the sixth or seventh year after the Hijra as they “contain a guide for pilgrims.” He states unequivocally that these verses could not have come after the conquest of Mecca because verse 30 warns Muslims against idols. According to his opinion, such a warning is meaningless after capturing Mecca.

Despite the relative shortness of this sura, its verses were given in different stages between the two years before the Hijra to the fifth or sixth year after the Hijra. This process means that the sura took about seven years to be completed. Ibn ‘Āshūr holds a similar opinion; he sees that some of the sura’s verses came in Mecca before the Hijra, while the rest were given in Medina.

This sura contains two major topics:

Call to believe in Islam and the Last Day (Day of Judgment).

Discussion of the Ģajj and its attribution to Abraham.

The name of the sura, al-Mū’minūn (“The Believers''), probably comes from the first verse of the sura: “Prosperous are the believers.” Islamic sources contain other names for the sura, such as sura Qad Aflaha (“He succeeded”) or sura al-Falāh (“the Success”).

Muslim scholars agree that the sura is Meccan. The mention of zakat, a typically Medinan word, in verse 4 does not make the sura Medinan. The word zakat that appears here is used with the meaning sadaqa (“charity”) instead. The Qur’ān does use zakat to describe an act of sadaqa, as in Q 41.6-7: “…and woe to the idolaters, who give not alms….”

The sura contains similarities with Q 7, which indicates that these two suras belong to the same period. This sura, as in Q 7, warns the Quraysh idolaters by mentioning the destiny of those of the past who rejected their prophets. All the prophets are presented as prototypes of Muhammad: Their messages are like his message and their people are like his people. The sura’s stories of Noah (verses 23-30), Hūd (verses 31-41), and Moses and Aaron (45-50) all confirm that Allah sends prophets who are human. This emphasis on the prophets’ humanness is Muhammad’s response to the inquiries by the Quraysh about the permissibility of Muhammad being a messenger of Allah, since he was a human being.

Orientalist Wherry holds that the sura reflects the weak, or even bleak, hope Muhammad felt toward winning over the Quraysh for Islam. Wherry finds it likely that this sura belongs to the beginning of the third Meccan period (c. AD 619).

This sura addresses four major topics:

Stories of the prophets.

Defense of Muhammad by threatening idolaters.

Description of Allah (verses 79-92).

Discourse about the afterlife.

The name of this sura, al-Nūr (“the Light”), was known during Muhammad’s time. This name was given to Q 24 because of verse 35: “God is the light of the heavens and the earth….” Islamic scholars agree that this sura is Medinan.

The most important part of Q 24 is the subject of ‘Ā’isha, Muhammad’s third wife, who was accused of illicit sexual behavior. Verses 11-22 have been used to clear her of the accusations leveled at her. This story is known in the historical sources as the incident of al-’Ifk. Because of this content, the sura belongs to the sixth year of the Hijra. However, it is believed that verse 6 (“And those who cast (imputation) on their wives and have no witnesses except themselves...”) came in the month of Sha’bān (November), the ninth year of Hijra. This information means that the sura came at different and lengthy time intervals, and some verses were added to it.

Verses 35-45, which start with “God is the light of the heavens and the earth,” are considered by Orientalist Nöldeke to be among the most beautiful and poetic subjects in the Medinan verses. Nöldeke also finds this section to be different from the rest of the sura. Writer and clergyman al-Haddād similarly agrees with Nöldeke’s analysis and finds that this section is independent, forming its own sura. Al-Ģaddād arrives at his conclusion because this section has a different rhyme (fāšila). On the other hand, Wherry finds that this section, based on his analysis of the style of verses 35-45, is Meccan.

In addition to the prominent topic of clearing ‘Ā’isha of the charge of adultery, the sura contains several principles:

Punishment for adultery.

Dealings regarding adultery charges.

Use of the hijāb, or woman’s veil.

The Arabic name of this sura, al-Furqān, was known during the Muhammadan era. It is so named because of the repetition of the word al-furqān three times in the sura.

Many Muslim scholars agree that this sura is Meccan. However, Orientalist Nöldeke states that some scholars believe some of the verses are Medinan because they allude to Wahshī Ibn harb, the man responsible for killing Muhammad’s uncle Hamza at the Battle of ’Uhud (but became a Muslim later). Nöldeke also mentions that Islamic scholar al-Ďahhak (also known as Ibn Muzāhim al-Hilālī) considers the entire sura to be Medinan.

Nöldeke points out that the verses enumerating the attributes of the believers (63-77) “lack topical relation to the preceding text, and also have a somewhat different rhyme” and questions “whether they are now in their original place”.

The sura addresses the following topics:

Defense against the accusations of the Quraysh over Muhammad’s legitimacy and their assertions that the Qur’ān merely rehashes ancient stories he learned from others.

Rejection against claims that Muhammad is a bewitched individual

Threats of divine wrath against unbelievers and reminders concerning the fates of earlier prophets.

Consequences for unbelievers of Muhammad’s Da‘wa.

Wherry believes that Muhammad’s arguments against paganism are more successful than his defense of his prophetic Da‘wa. He further adds that the verses enumerating reasons for the exclusive worship of Allah are eloquent.

The sura is named al-Shu‘arā’ (“The Poets”) because it singularly mentions the word al-shu‘arā’. Others called this sura by another name: Sura T. S. M. This sura is generally considered Meccan (containing Qur’ānic text revealed in Mecca, according to Islamic teachings) though there is disagreement regarding the section, “And the poets do those follow who go astray…but those who do wrong shall know with what a turn they shall be turned” (Q 26.224-227). The cause of this disagreement is the context in which this section is mentioned. Does this section refer to the poets of Mecca, or, as some Muslim scholars believe, does it refer to the poet Ḥassān Ibn Thābit (a Companion of Muḥammad and an Ansār from the Medinan tribe, al-Khazraj) and others, persons that would establish this particular section as Medinan Qur’ānic text?

Orientalist Theodor Nöldeke proposes that this section, which is critical of poets, is more likely to be Muḥammad’s response to the personal attacks waged against him by the nonbelieving Quraysh poets. Nöldeke’s opinion, that this section is Meccan, is further strengthened because the word poet or poets is never mentioned in the Qur’ān’s Medinan text. Orientalist E. M. Wherry is of a similar mind when he states that he regards the style of this section to be Meccan.

On the other hand, a more contemporary renowned scholar, Yūsuf Durra al-Ḥaddād (AD 1913-1979), holds that verses 224-227 do not belong in the context of Q 26; they are instead independent and were added later to the sura. He, as well as some Islamic commentaries, holds that this section is Medinan and was added later to the original Q 26.

Nöldeke also discusses verses 214-215 and questions the view that these verses belong to an early Meccan period. He doubts this claim because the text does not have the same force as earlier suras Q 111 and Q 74. He also states that verses 215 and 219 refer to the presence of a small group of Muslims, but such a group would not have yet formed in the earlier period.

The main topic of the sura is the defense of the prophetic claim of Muḥammad against the objections of the Quraysh. This defense includes stories of prophets who faced similar rejections by their people, suggesting that their realities are Muḥammad’s reality:

Moses (verses 10-68)

Abraham (verses 69-103)

Noah (verses 105-120)

Hūd and the people of ‘Ād (verses 122-139)

Ṣāliḥ and the people of Thamūd (verses 141-158)

Lot (verses 160-174)

Shu‘ayb and the people of Median (verses 176-190)

The refrain “verily, thy Lord He is mighty and merciful” is repeated in eight verses: 9, 68, 104, 122, 140, 159, 175, and 195.

Muslim scholars have expressed their opinions on this verse:

The first opinion: According to ‘Ā’isha, this verse refers to the orphans’ custodians.

They were infatuated with the beauty of the orphan girls in their care and married

them at a reduced dowry. The verse directs these men to pay the girls a fair dowry.

However, if they feared that they would not be able to act equitably in this regard,

then they should marry foreign women.

The second opinion: After the Qur’ān demanded the just dealing of orphans

(Q 4.2), men felt intense pressure lest they failed to be equitable. Therefore, the

following verse tells them, “[I]f you were afraid to neglect justice to orphans’ rights

and are in distress over it, then also be afraid to neglect justice to women, and

so reduce the number of women you marry.”

It was mentioned by Sa‘īd Ibn Jubayr, al-Sadī, Qatāda, and Ibn ‘Abbās that as far as the orphans’ money was concerned, Arab men felt pressured to act responsibly, but they did not feel that same responsibility when it came to women, even if they married ten or more women. Therefore, the verse directs men, “[A]s you fear being unjust with orphans, likewise feel an obligation towards women and marry only up to the limit that

would avoid injustice.”

The third opinion: Muslim men felt hard-pressed to take care of orphans, so they

were told, if they feared for the rights of orphans, so be afraid of adultery, and,

thus, marry only the number of women allowed and try not to circumvent what is

prohibited.

The fourth opinion: It was said that married men with several wives were taking

care of orphan girls and when they spent money on their wives, the money came

from the orphans’ allotment. As a result, the verse came to warn against this

shameful conduct and request that men be satisfied with a maximum of four wives

as a way to eliminate the cause of this misbehavior. If they were worried that they

would be unjust to even four wives, then they were instructed to marry just one.

Explains the commentary found in al-Muharir al-Wajīz: “If you feared the lack of

money to do injustice to orphans, then be limited.”

Notice the contradiction. One suggestion declares that Arabs were accustomed to

seizing the money of orphans for personal gain, either through reducing the dowry

(the first opinion) or through direct misappropriation of orphans’ money for personal

reasons, such as spending it on their wives (the fourth opinion).

Meanwhile, the second opinion states that men were trying to be fair to orphans

and that was why the Qur’ān asks the man to deal justly with his wife (or wives) in a

way similar to his conduct with orphans. However, this opinion does not agree with

the context of the verse, because the preceding verse warns men against robbing the

orphans of their money, a statement that insinuates they are guilty of robbing orphans.

Notice the verse does not tell Muslims, “as you fear being unjust with orphans, so fear

similarly with women,” but uses the phrasing, “if...then.” In other words, it shows a

relationship between the two.

As for the third opinion stating that the verse pertains to adultery, it is a weak opinion

because the verse is speaking of marriage. Even if we accept the third opinion, the

conditional connection “if...then” remains incomprehensible. Nevertheless, none of

these four opinions gives the reader a clear reason to link the fear of being unjust with orphans’ money and the solution, marrying multiple women of their choice.

Some of the Quraysh requested Muģammad to bring forth a miracle to prove the authenticity of his claim of being a prophet (verse 7). He responded, “God knows what each female bears, and what the wombs fall short of or add…” (verse 8). The following verses describe God as omniscient (verse 9-10). The text responds to the Quraysh’s demands for proof of Muģammad’s claims by giving a description of Allah’s power. There is no relationship here between the request for a miracle and the description of Allah’s ability to know “the unseen and the visible.” Allah’s divine omniscience does not prove that Muģammad was sent by Allah.