The Qur'an and people of other Faiths

The basis for dealing with people of other faiths who interacted with Muhammad can be found in sura al-Tawba (Q 9). First, the sura provided value judgments regarding the other religions. Second, it organized a set of principles for dealing with their adherents. Third, it settled the understanding of jihad by describing it as the tool for dealing with people of other faiths.

Warlike Tone of al-Tawba

In general, this sura conveys a warlike quality, as evidenced in two areas:

Names of the Sura

Exegetical sources mention different names for the sura. The most common are al-Bara’a (“Disavowal by God”) and al-Tawba (“Repentance”). But other names and descriptions embody a more combatant spirit of the sura: al-Mukhziyya (“the Shaming One”), al-Munakila (“the Torturer”), and al-Musharrida (“the Displacer”). It is told that Huthayfa said, “You call it sura al-Tawba [Repentance], but it is indeed sura al-‘Athab [Suffering]”.

Omission of al-Basmala

Q 9 is the only sura in the Qur’ān that does not begin with the Basmala (“In the name of the merciful and compassionate God…”). Listed below are two of the most common reasons that have been offered to explain its absence:

Basmala refers to mercy and security, yet this sura contains verses that encourage fighting. Many believe that for this reason the Basmala was dropped from this sura.

During the time of this sura’s revelation, the Arabs would typically remove the Basmala when writing a document that contained a breach to a covenant. Thus, this sura was read without the Basmala, according to that tradition.

The imprinting of this sura with the “war brand” goes back to the fact that it was composed during several stages of time that were full of military battles. This historical theater of operations included several important military campaigns:

Making preparations to occupy Mecca (verses 13-15), a conquest that took place in the eighth year of the Hegira (AH 8/AD 630). Plans were also underway for the battle of Hunayn, which took place immediately after the conquest of Mecca (Q 9.25).

Carrying out the raid of Tabuk along the Syrian borders (AH 9/AD 631), the first battle for Muslims with opponents from outside the Arabian Peninsula.

Annulling the peace treaties. In the ninth year of the Hegira (AH 9/AD 631), Muhammad sent Abu Bakr to Mecca to lead the pilgrims. As soon as Abu Bakr arrived at Mecca, ‘Ali Ibn Abi Talib caught up with him with a command from Muhammad to read the first part of Q 9 to the pilgrims. This part included the annulment of every peace agreement Muhammad had contracted with the pagan Arab tribes, as well as the banning of other religions in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula so that Islam would become the only religion.

The sura divides the people of other religions into two groups:

al-mushrikun (“the idolaters/pagans”): People who believe in nonbiblical faiths

People of the Book: Jews and Christians

Based on this division, Q 9 specifies the rules for the treatment of these groups.

Treatment of al-Mushrikun (“the idolaters/pagans”) (verses 1-28)

As prescribed in Q 9, Muslims must force, if necessary, idolators and pagans to accept Islam or risk captivity or death by Muslim forces, because al-mushrikun are dishonest, evil, and unclean.

Extermination Campaign (verses 1-6)

Verse 1 of the sura annuls every covenant that was made between Muhammad and the Muslims on one side and the al-Mushrikun on the other side. It also gives a grace period, in verse 2, of “four months,” during which the pagans could move freely. Afterward, they would become targets of the Muslims’ sword. Muhammad wanted to give the four-month period a chance to frighten the pagans so that they would have “in it plenty of time to consider their matter, and to think about their end: to choose between Islam or the preparation for resistance and clashing”. In verse 3 it threatens that although the pagans have been given a chance, Allah will bring upon them killing and captivity in this world and torment in the next. Then it advises the pagans to adopt Islam, trying to persuade them that it would be better for them. So verse 3 gives the pagans two choices: accept Islam or face war.

Verse 5 then says that after the four-month grace period has expired, it becomes permissible to spill the blood of the pagans wherever they may be found in the Arabian Peninsula, even if they are on the premises of al-Ka‘ba. Everyone who has adopted the religion of Islam would be spared. This verse also commands the Muslims to lie in wait for the pagans in all their paths and to kill them wherever and whenever possible. Thus, this verse imposes on the Muslims the requirement to treat the believers of other nonbiblical religions as enemies.

This verse states the following rules of combat:

Kill pagans immediately if they fall into the hands of the Muslims.

Besiege the pagans in their homes and forbid them to move.

Lie in wait for pagans everywhere so that they would find it impossible to move without Islamic supervision. (The scholars say that lying in wait for the pagans is a “general” ruling. It is not limited to the Arabian Peninsula during that time only but applies to every time and place).

Offer freedom and peace if the pagans adopt Islam and abandon their own religion, committing themselves to prayer and almsgiving.

The two conditions of prayer and almsgiving are strictly emphasized because prayer is the symbolic expression of the individual’s submission to the god of Islam, and almsgiving is the tangible expression of submission to the Islamic government and recognition of the legitimacy of that government. The following verse also stresses that adopting Islam as a religion must be accompanied by prayer and almsgiving: “But if they repent and are steadfast in prayer and give alms, then they are your brethren in religion…” (Q 9.11).

At the end of verse 5, Muhammad announces that the pagan’s adoption of Islam (or his surrender) prevents him from being killed because “God is forgiving and merciful”. Forgiveness and mercy are only offered on the condition of surrendering to the will of the Muslims.

Verse 6 indicates a situation where a pagan may be given temporary security if he expresses a desire to become acquainted with Islam. If the pagan refuses to accept Islam, he is permitted to leave safely. However, war would then be declared on him anew. Therefore, the aim of the temporary easement was only to deliver and spread the message of Islam.

Discredit of the Pagans (verses 7, 8, and 10)

Q 9 questions the honesty of the pagans. Verse 7 asks the negative question, “How do the pagans have the right to attain a covenant with the Muslims?” when, according to the accusation of this verse, the pagans would not honor such a relationship or a covenant if they overcame the Muslims. The same accusation is repeated in verse 10.

The following verse (Q 9.8) claims that the pagans will practice a policy of dissimulation when they are weak (and cannot prevail) even as their hearts are full of resentment and hatred. All these verses aim to make the pagans look dishonest and evil so that the Muslim would see it to be his duty to implement the tasks appointed by the previous verses: killing, besieging, and lying in wait.

Pagans’ Uncleanliness (verse 28)

The incitement against the pagans continues with the text in verse 28: “It is only the idolaters [pagans] who are unclean....” The word نَجَسٌ: najasun (“unclean”) is a root word, the use of which makes “masculine and feminine; singular, dual, and plural equal. This word’s intent is to exaggerate in the description by making the described to be the definition of that description”. This word does not appear anywhere else in the Qur’ān.

The Muslim scholars give two opinions regarding the meaning of najasun:

The word najasun used as a description is a metaphor meant to show contempt. Others also say that the pagans are described as unclean because they do not hold to the Muslim cleansing rituals.

Pagans are unclean by nature. It is told that Ibn ‘Abbas said, “Their notables are unclean like the dogs and the pigs”. In another source he stated “that their notables are as dirty as dogs”. The Twelvers (the largest branch of Shiite Islam) also declare that non-Muslims are literally “najasun”.

The term najasun generates several repulsive descriptions in the mind of the Muslim:

Unclean: meaning unhygienic and dirty; a thought that aims to create a pathological aversion towards the other.

Moral impurity: meaning corrupt morals, which plays a role in feeding into the hatred towards the other by portraying him as impure; thus, the world must be purified of him.

The sura also uses a similar term, الرِّجسُ: al-rijsu (“abomination”), which means “dirty,” a thing that is nasty or an ugly act. This word was used as a description of a party that refused to participate in the raid of Tabuk; so it said about them, “Verily, they are a plague…” (Q 9.95).

Treatment of People of the Book (verses 29-35)

These verses address the People of the Book (Jews and Christians) and contain several accusations to justify Islamic law against them. The verses state that the People of the Book should be fought for the following reasons:

They do not believe in Allah.

They do not believe in the Last Day.

They do not keep the prohibitions of Islam: “and who forbid not what God and His Apostle have forbidden…”(Q 9.29).

They do not adopt Islam as their religion: “and who do not practice the religion of truth...”(Q 9.29).

The first and second items show ignorance regarding the doctrines of Judaism and Christianity. Instead, the content resembles a political statement, the goal of which is to incite fighting and not introduce the Muslims to these two religions or start a dialogue with them.

Al-Jizya (verse 29)

If the People of the Book would not adopt Islam as their religion, then verse 29 gives the condition that fighting them would only stop if they gave al-jizya, a fine (tribute) for living in Islamic lands: “until they pay the tribute by their hands and be as little ones…” (Q 9.29). So what does this mean?

“by their hands: عن يَدٍ : ‘an yadin”

The Christian or the Jew would pay the fine personally; no one else can do it in his place.

The Christian or the Jew, helpless and powerless, would feel compelled (forced) to pay the fine.

The Christian or the Jew would pay the fine in appreciation of the graciousness of Islam [for sparing his life and letting him live in a Muslim land].

“and be as little ones: وهم صاغرون : wa hum saghirun”

It means that while a Jew or Christian is cowering and submissive, “The lowly despicable person is called saghir [“subdued”]”.

Scholars provide even more detailed meanings for subdued:

The Christian or the Jew should pay it standing straight, while the one receiving it would be seated. When the payee of the jizya reaches the person receiving it, the Muslim man receiving it would take him by the throat and say to him, “pay the jizya”. Others say, once he pays, he gets slapped on his behind. It is also said that he is to be taken by his beard and beaten on his jaw. It is said as well that he is to be taken violently by the collar of his clothes and dragged to the place of payment.

Subdued means that the Christian or the Jew would present the jizya in spite of his hatred of it.

The commentaries on this verse say that the People of the Book who reside within the borders of the Islamic country should not be respected, nor should they be held in a higher regard than the Muslims. Such a policy was implemented after Muhammad gave this order to the Muslims: “Do not greet the Jews and Christians first, and, if you meet one of them along the way, force him to take the narrowest of it”.

False Accusations

Just like the previous verses aimed at discrediting and demonizing the idolaters, other verses in Q 9 attempt to plant hatred in Muslims by presenting allegations to create a negative image of the People of the Book:

Verse 29 considers their doctrines to be null and void, that they “do not practice the religion of truth….”

Verse 30 attributes to the Jews the false saying: “Ezra is the son of God….”

Verse 30 disputes and belittles the claim that “Christians say that the Messiah [Christ] is the son of God….”

Verse 31 claims that the Jews “take their doctors [rabbis and religious leaders]… as lords” and the Christians “take…their monks…and the Messiah the son of Mary” to be their lords.

Verse 32 adds that these doctors and monks “desire to put out the light of God with their mouths….”

Verse 34 claims a large percentage of “the doctors and monks devour the wealth of men openly” and hinders them from adopting Islam.

The goal behind these accusations is to create a justification for fighting the People of the Book. In his commentary on verses 30-31, Ibn Kathir makes this blunt declaration: “This is an enticement from Allah almighty for the believers to fight the blaspheming idolatrous Jews and Christians [our emphasis], for their saying this heinous fabrication against Allah”. In verses 34-35 the inclusion of Jewish and Christian leaders expands the incrimination against the Jews and Christians and serves to introduce yet more inflammatory text to the rest of the sura that incites fighting against the People of the Book.

The description by Ibn Kathir of the Jews and the Christians as idolaters echoes the previous passage in verse 28, which describes idolaters as unclean. Now the description of najasun (“unclean”) is no longer limited to the believers in nonbiblical religions only but also includes the People of the Book, because—according to Ibn Kathir—they are idolaters as well. In one verse, the Qur’ān describes the Jews as “the idolaters.” The Qur’ān also accuses Christians of denying the oneness of God and believing there are three gods (Q 5.73; compare with Q 4.171). In Q 3.64, Jews and the Christians are accused of associating others with Allah [worshipping others along with Allah].

Based on these Qur’ānic descriptions, the Arabic concordance offers this definition of the word shirk: “To have shirk in Allah: to have a partner in his reign…the noun is al-shirku…to associate with Allah a partner in his Lordship….”

Hence, the term al-shirk in the Qur’ān includes the pagan religions found in the Arabian Peninsula at that time, as well as the biblical religions, Judaism and Christianity. Based on this denotation, the Muslim legislators state that the People of the Book “are of the same status as the unclean notables in the imperativeness to avoid them.”23 Al-Hassan says, “He who shakes hands with a mushrik [idolater] must perform wudu’ [ablutions] again”. The Zhahiriyya, the Shiite Twelvers, and the Sunnis concur with this opinion. These three groups constitute the largest currents in Islam.

A modern scholar states that the People of the Book are “evil ones [and] wicked, due to the shirk, oppression, and ugliness of morals”. This suspicion with regard to the non-Muslim’s ethics and morals established the principle of “Loyalty and Repudiation”.

Loyalty and Repudiation (verses 23, 24, 71, 113, 114)

Sura Q 9 commands the Muslims to establish their ties on the basis of religious sectarianism and not of kinship. It says that there is no such thing as loyalty between a Muslim and his fathers or brothers. Furthermore, the Muslim who befriends one who is not Muslim is considered one of the oppressors. The Qur’ān points out the necessity of being at enmity with all who are at enmity with Islam, “even if they were their fathers, or their sons, or their brethren, or their clansmen…” (Q 58.22).

In Q 60.16, the Qur’ān stresses that it is not permissible to establish a relationship between a Muslim and a non-Muslim. In Q 35.5, it completely forbids being loyal to (befriending) the People of the Book. In Q 9.71, a Muslim is to be loyal only to another Muslim. On the psychological level, it is not permissible, according to verse 113, to even think about seeking forgiveness “for the idolaters, even though they are kindred”.

The commentaries say that verse 113 was revealed in Mecca to stop Muhammad from praying for forgiveness for his uncle who had just died. It is told that Muhammad came to Abu Talib at the time of his dying and asked him to say the expression, “There is no god but Allah”, but Abu Talib refused. So the verse came following his death: “Then it was added to this Medinan sura because it was suitable to its rulings….It is also narrated by a group that it was revealed when he [Muhammad] visited his mother’s tomb and asked forgiveness for her”.

Thus, it is not permissible for a Muslim to ask for forgiveness for a non-Muslim, even if it is his dead mother! The sura underscores this point in the following verse (114) by offering Ibrahim (Abraham) as an example to be followed. When Abraham realized that his father did not believe in his religion, “he dissociated himself from him”.

Treatment of Both Groups by Means of Jihad (“holy war”)

Despite the differences between the People of the Book and al-mushrikun, Q 9 makes both groups the focused target of jihad.

Imperative to fight non-Muslims (verses 14-16)

The Muslim has to fight anyone who is a non-Muslim. In verses 14-16, the Qur’ān incited the Muslims to storm Mecca. At that time, Q 9 stated Allah would make Quraysh taste suffering at the hands of the Muslims. In verses 14-15, it states that killing the Quraysh would “remove [the] rage” from the hearts of Muslims. Al-Zuhaili notes that killing the enemy had a psychological benefit for Muslims: “It is a removal of the anguish or the sorrow of the hearts of the Muslims who were hurt by the pagan’s breaking their covenant”.

To proceed further in the killing gives the Muslims the joy of revenge and “heals the chests of [the Muslims] by the killing of the idolaters”. Subduing the idolaters at the hands of the Muslims heals the anger and hatred that are in the hearts of the Muslims because of what had come to them “of harm and abomination”. Based on these verses, killing for the cause of Islam has become an enjoyable act for the Muslim fighter in every time and place.

Jihad is a duty of every Muslim because as verse 16 states (compare with Q 29.2-3), it reveals the true Muslim from the one whose faith is impure. The goal behind the fighting, according to Q 9.33, is that Islam will prevail over all religions “averse although idolaters may be”.

The necessity to fight to raise the banner of Islam over all other religions is mentioned in several places in the Qur’ān. The most well-known of these verses are located in Q 9:

Q 9.5: “kill the idolaters wherever ye may find them; and take them, and besiege them, and lie in wait for them in every place of observation….” This verse concerned the pagan Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula, but it became a jurisprudence base for all nonbiblical persons.

Q 9.29: “Fight those who believe not in God…and who do not practice the religion of truth from amongst those to whom the Book has been brought, until they pay the tribute by their hands and be as little ones.” This verse demands the fighting of the People of the Book (Jews and Christians) to either subdue them and impose the jizya or force them to adopt Islam as their religion.

Q 9.36: “but fight the idolaters, one and all, as they fight you one and all.” This passage demands the fighting of all who are non-Muslim and considers the non-Muslims as one anti-Islamic camp.

Foreign Invasion

In the ninth year of the Hegira, Muhammad decided to carry out a raid on the Syrian borders that came to be known as the raid of Tabuk (AH 9/AD 631). This was the first Islamic military skirmish outside the Arabian Peninsula. Verses 38-39 of Q 9 helped to incite the invasion and threaten those who refused to take up arms with the punishment of hellfire. As a continuation to this call to battle (verses 88-89), the sura commends the fighters and promises them “gardens beneath rivers flow.” Even today, this agitation to invade remains active in the Islamic doctrine and the Islamic mind.

In verse 73 commands Muhammad to fight “the unbelievers and the hypocrites.” He is also exhorted to be severe and rough as he makes war on his enemies. This directive has become the duty of Muslims in every time and place. Ibn Mas’ud comments that verse 73 states that a Muslim must carry out jihad “by his hand, but if he cannot, then with his tongue, but if he could not then with his heart, yet if he could not, then let him scowl with his face”.

Verse 111 states that Allah has made a deal with Muslims, in which he has purchased of Muslims “their persons and their wealth, for the paradise they are to have….” That is, Muslims have to put forth their lives and possessions in the cause of lifting the banner of Islam over the world. In return for this sacrifice, Allah will give them paradise. In the text of the contract, we read that the Muslims are obligated to fight, “and they shall slay and be slain….”

Elimination of Critics

In the second part of Q 9.12 is a command to fight anyone who criticizes Islam. Thus, criticizing Islam, or critiquing the life of Muhammad, is considered a crime punishable by death.

A modern exegete states that any discussion about the Qur’ān, Islam, or the life of Muhammad is a form of war on Islam. If a Christian or a Jew who resides within the borders of an Islamic country dares to discuss subjects that are related to Islam, “his killing becomes permissible, because the covenant has already been contracted with him that he would not discredit. If he discredits Islam, he will have broken his covenant and left al-dhimma”. In his commentary on verse 13, this same exegete considers that any non-Muslim evangelism is a product of the political colonialism. So he gives the prohibition to evangelize in the Islamic world a false nationalistic justification.

Conclusion

Sura Q 9 divides the believers of other religions into two groups:

Those who belong to nonbiblical religions. The Muslims must fight them until they adopt Islam as their religion or are killed. This ruling used to apply to the pagans of the Arabian Peninsula. However, now it covers all the nonbiblical religions, including the other major religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and so on. This ruling also applies to nonreligious groups. The sura specifies a fixed principle to deal with this group, which means that this first group has only two choices: to become Muslims or to be killed.

The People of the Book. According to the Qur’ān, Muhammad is the seal of the prophets, and Islam abrogates all previous religions. Hence, this sura formulates a rule that states that the People of the Book have to either accept Islam or pay the jizya. Furthermore, Islam divides Muslim society into two classes: Muslims (first class) and People of the Book (second class).

As to relations between countries, the Muslim doctrine divides the world into two groups: Dar al-Islam (House of Islam) where Islam rules, and Dar al-Harb (House of War), which is every country that has not submitted to the Islamic ruling, regardless of whether or not it is in a real state of war with Muslims and regardless of the prominent religion in it.

The Qur’ān imposes on Muslims the obligation to fight in order to raise the banner of Islam over all the earth. The imposition of jihad in Q 9 is an absolute command—not for defense but for this one consideration: forcing the world to accept Islam, even by the power of the sword (Q 9.5, 29, 33, 36, 73, 111, and 123). Verse 123 commands Muslims to start their holy war on their neighboring countries: “O ye who believe! fight those who are near to you of the misbelievers…”—the height of good neighborly conduct among the nations!

References

1. ‘Abdu 10: 175. 2. al-Mah. allī and al-Suyūt.ī, Tafsīr al-Jalālayn 187. 3. al-Shanqīt.ī 2: 501. 4. al-Bayd. āwi 4: 426. 5. ‘Abdu 10: 181. 6. Ibid. 10: 199. 7. Ibid. 10: 322. 8. al-Zamakhsharī 3: 30. 9. al-Zamakhsharī 3: 30; compare with Encyclopedia of the Qur’ān 1: 410. 10. al-Bayd. āwi 4: 448. 11. Encyclopedia of the Qur’ān 1: 343. 12. al-Qurt.ubī 10: 170. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. al-T. abarī 11: 407. 16. Ibid. 11: 408. 17. al-Zamakhsharī 3: 32. 18. al-Baghawī 4: 33-34. 19. al-T. abarī 11: 408. 20. Ibn Kathīr 7: 176. 21. Ibid 7: 178. 22. Ibn Manz. ūr 2249. 23. al-Bayd. āwi 4: 449. 24. Ibn Kathīr 7: 174; al-Zamakhsharī 3: 30-31. 25. ‘Abdu 10: 324. 26. al-Zuh.ailī 192. 27. ‘Abdu 10: 174. 28. Ibid. 11: 57.

29. al-Zuh.ailī 190. 30. al-T. abarī 11: 369. 31. Ibn Kathīr 7: 237. 32. Ibid. 7: 155. 33. ‘Abdu 10: 229. 34. Ibid. 10: 230.